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《相平衡、相图和相变——其热力学基础(第二版)》是影印版英文专著,原书由剑桥大学出版社于2008年出版。相平衡、相变等热力学原理是理解、设计材料属性的基础。计算工具的出现使材料学家能够处理越来越复杂的情况,但对于热力学基础理论的理解也越来越重要。本书图文并茂,深入浅出地讲解了热力学原理以及在计算机计算中的应用,对于材料科学、材料工程方面的研究者会有很大帮助。
内容简介
《相平衡、相图和相变——其热力学基础(第二版)(英文影印版)》主要内容为现代计算机应用观点下的热力学基本原理。 化学平衡和化学变化的理论基础也是本书的内容之一,其重点在于相图的性质。本书从基本原理出发,讨论延及多相的系统。第二版新增加的内容包括不可逆热力学、极值原理和表面、界面热力学等等。 平衡条件的理论刻画、系统的平衡状态和达到平衡时的变化都以图解的形式给出。
《相平衡、相图和相变——其热力学基础(第二版)(英文影印版)》适合材料科学与工程领域的研究人员、研究生和高年级本科生阅读。
作者简介
(瑞典)希勒特(M. Hillert),瑞典皇家工学院教授。
目录
Preface to second edition page xii
Preface to first edition xiii
1 Basic concepts of thermodynamics 1
1.1 External state variables 1
1.2 Internal state variables 3
1.3 The first law of thermodynamics 5
1.4 Freezing-in conditions 9
1.5 Reversible and irreversible processes 10
1.6 Second law of thermodynamics 13
1.7 Condition of internal equilibrium 17
1.8 Driving force 19
1.9 Combined first and second law 21
1.10 General conditions of equilibrium 23
1.11 Characteristic state functions 24
1.12 Entropy 26
2 Manipulation of thermodynamic quantities 30
2.1 Evaluation of one characteristic state function from another 30
2.2 Internal variables at equilibrium 31
2.3 Equations of state 33
2.4 Experimental conditions 34
2.5 Notation for partial derivatives 37
2.6 Use of various derivatives 38
2.7 Comparison between CV and CP 40
2.8 Change of independent variables 41
2.9 Maxwell relations 43
3 Systems with variable composition 45
3.1 Chemical potential 45
3.2 Molar and integral quantities 46
3.3 More about characteristic state functions 48
3.4 Additivity of extensive quantities. Free energy and exergy 51
3.5 Various forms of the combined law 52
3.6 Calculation of equilibrium 54
3.7 Evaluation of the driving force 56
3.8 Driving force for molecular reactions 58
3.9 Evaluation of integrated driving force as function of
T or P 59
3.10 Effective driving force 60
4 Practical handling of multicomponent systems 63
4.1 Partial quantities 63
4.2 Relations for partial quantities 65
4.3 Alternative variables for composition 67
4.4 The lever rule 70
4.5 The tie-line rule 71
4.6 Different sets of components 74
4.7 Constitution and constituents 75
4.8 Chemical potentials in a phase with sublattices 77
5 Thermodynamics of processes 80
5.1 Thermodynamic treatment of kinetics of
internal processes 80
5.2 Transformation of the set of processes 83
5.3 Alternative methods of transformation 85
5.4 Basic thermodynamic considerations for processes 89
5.5 Homogeneous chemical reactions 92
5.6 Transport processes in discontinuous systems 95
5.7 Transport processes in continuous systems 98
5.8 Substitutional diffusion 101
5.9 Onsager’s extremum principle 104
6 Stability 108
6.1 Introduction 108
6.2 Some necessary conditions of stability 110
6.3 Sufficient conditions of stability 113
6.4 Summary of stability conditions 115
6.5 Limit of stability 116
6.6 Limit of stability against fluctuations in composition 117
6.7 Chemical capacitance 120
6.8 Limit of stability against fluctuations of
internal variables 121
6.9 Le Chatelier’s principle 123
7 Applications of molar Gibbs energy diagrams 126
7.1 Molar Gibbs energy diagrams for binary systems 126
7.2 Instability of binary solutions 131
7.3 Illustration of the Gibbs–Duhem relation 132
7.4 Two-phase equilibria in binary systems 135
7.5 Allotropic phase boundaries 137
7.6 Effect of a pressure difference on a two-phase
equilibrium 138
7.7 Driving force for the formation of a new phase 142
7.8 Partitionless transformation under local equilibrium 144
7.9 Activation energy for a fluctuation 147
7.10 Ternary systems 149
7.11 Solubility product 151
8 Phase equilibria and potential phase diagrams 155
8.1 Gibbs’ phase rule 155
8.2 Fundamental property diagram 157
8.3 Topology of potential phase diagrams 162
8.4 Potential phase diagrams in binary and multinary systems 166
8.5 Sections of potential phase diagrams 168
8.6 Binary systems 170
8.7 Ternary systems 173
8.8 Direction of phase fields in potential phase diagrams 177
8.9 Extremum in temperature and pressure 181
9 Molar phase diagrams 185
9.1 Molar axes 185
9.2 Sets of conjugate pairs containing molar variables 189
9.3 Phase boundaries 193
9.4 Sections of molar phase diagrams 195
9.5 Schreinemakers’ rule 197
9.6 Topology of sectioned molar diagrams 201
10 Projected and mixed phase diagrams 205
10.1 Schreinemakers’ projection of potential phase diagrams 205
10.2 The phase field rule and projected diagrams 208
10.3 Relation between molar diagrams and Schreinemakers’
projected diagrams 212
10.4 Coincidence of projected surfaces 215
10.5 Projection of higher-order invariant equilibria 217
10.6 The phase field rule and mixed diagrams 220
10.7 Selection of axes in mixed diagrams 223
10.8 Konovalov’s rule 226
10.9 General rule for singular equilibria 229
11 Direction of phase boundaries 233
11.1 Use of distribution coefficient 233
11.2 Calculation of allotropic phase boundaries 235
11.3 Variation of a chemical potential in a two-phase field 238
11.4 Direction of phase boundaries 240
11.5 Congruent melting points 244
11.6 Vertical phase boundaries 248
11.7 Slope of phase boundaries in isothermal sections 249
11.8 The effect of a pressure difference between two phases 251
12 Sharp and gradual phase transformations 253
12.1 Experimental conditions 253
12.2 Characterization of phase transformations 255
12.3 Microstructural character 259
12.4 Phase transformations in alloys 261
12.5 Classification of sharp phase transformations 262
12.6 Applications of Schreinemakers’ projection 266
12.7 Scheil’s reaction diagram 270
12.8 Gradual phase transformations at fixed composition 272
12.9 Phase transformations controlled by a chemical potential 275
13 Transformations in closed systems 279
13.1 The phase field rule at constant composition 279
13.2 Reaction coefficients in sharp transformations
for p = c + 1 280
13.3 Graphical evaluation of reaction coefficients 283
13.4 Reaction coefficients in gradual transformations
for p = c 285
13.5 Driving force for sharp phase transformations 287
13.6 Driving force under constant chemical potential 291
13.7 Reaction coefficients at constant chemical potential 294
13.8 Compositional degeneracies for p = c 295
13.9 Effect of two compositional degeneracies for p = c . 1 299
14 Partitionless transformations 302
14.1 Deviation from local equilibrium 302
14.2 Adiabatic phase transformation 303
14.3 Quasi-adiabatic phase transformation 305
14.4 Partitionless transformations in binary system 308
14.5 Partial chemical equilibrium 311
14.6 Transformations in steel under quasi-paraequilibrium 315
14.7 Transformations in steel under partitioning of alloying elements 319
15 Limit of stability and critical phenomena 322
15.1 Transformations and transitions 322
15.2 Order–disorder transitions 325
15.3 Miscibility gaps 330
15.4 Spinodal decomposition 334
15.5 Tri-critical points 338
16 Interfaces 344
16.1 Surface energy and surface stress 344
16.2 Phase equilibrium at curved interfaces 345
16.3 Phase equilibrium at fluid/fluid interfaces 346
16.4 Size stability for spherical inclusions 350
16.5 Nucleation 351
16.6 Phase equilibrium at crystal/fluid interface 353
16.7 Equilibrium at curved interfaces with regard to composition 356
16.8 Equilibrium for crystalline inclusions with regard to composition 359
16.9 Surface segregation 361
16.10 Coherency within a phase 363
16.11 Coherency between two phases 366
16.12 Solute drag 371
17 Kinetics of transport processes 377
17.1 Thermal activation 377
17.2 Diffusion coefficients 381
17.3 Stationary states for transport processes 384
17.4 Local volume change 388
17.5 Composition of material crossing an interface 390
17.6 Mechanisms of interface migration 391
17.7 Balance of forces and dissipation 396
18 Methods of modelling 400
18.1 General principles 400
18.2 Choice of characteristic state function 401
18.3 Reference states 402
18.4 Representation of Gibbs energy of formation 405
18.5 Use of power series in T 407
18.6 Representation of pressure dependence 408
18.7 Application of physical models 410
18.8 Ideal gas 411
18.9 Real gases 412
18.10 Mixtures of gas species 415
18.11 Black-body radiation 417
18.12 Electron gas 418
19 Modelling of disorder 420
19.1 Introduction 420
19.2 Thermal vacancies in a crystal 420
19.3 Topological disorder 423
19.4 Heat capacity due to thermal vibrations 425
19.5 Magnetic contribution to thermodynamic properties 429
19.6 A simple physical model for the magnetic contribution 431
19.7 Random mixture of atoms 434
19.8 Restricted random mixture 436
19.9 Crystals with stoichiometric vacancies 437
19.10 Interstitial solutions 439
20 Mathematical modelling of solution phases 441
20.1 Ideal solution 441
20.2 Mixing quantities 443
20.3 Excess quantities 444
20.4 Empirical approach to substitutional solutions 445
20.5 Real solutions 448
20.6 Applications of the Gibbs–Duhem relation 452
20.7 Dilute solution approximations 454
20.8 Predictions for solutions in higher-order systems 456
20.9 Numerical methods of predictions for higher-order systems 458
21 Solution phases with sublattices 460
21.1 Sublattice solution phases 460
21.2 Interstitial solutions 462
21.3 Reciprocal solution phases 464
21.4 Combination of interstitial and substitutional solution 468
21.5 Phases with variable order 469
21.6 Ionic solid solutions 472
22 Physical solution models 476
22.1 Concept of nearest-neighbour bond energies 476
22.2 Random mixing model for a substitutional solution 478
22.3 Deviation from random distribution 479
22.4 Short-range order 482
22.5 Long-range order 484
22.6 Long- and short-range order 486
22.7 The compound energy formalism with short-range order 488
22.8 Interstitial ordering 490
22.9 Composition dependence of physical effects 493
References 496
Index 499
前言/序言
《相平衡、相图与相变:其热力学基础》(第二版)(英文影印版)图书简介 深入理解物质世界转变的基石 《相平衡、相图与相变:其热力学基础》(第二版)是一部全面而深入的专著,旨在为材料科学、化学工程、物理化学以及相关领域的研究人员和高年级本科生/研究生提供一个坚实的理论框架,用以理解和预测物质在不同温度、压力和组分条件下的行为。本书的核心聚焦于相平衡现象的驱动力——热力学原理,并系统地阐述了如何利用这些原理构建和解读相图,从而指导实际过程的设计与优化。 本书的第二版在继承第一版严谨性和全面性的基础上,进行了大量的修订和增补,以反映近年来该领域的新进展和教学实践中的反馈。它不仅是一本教科书,更是一本深入的参考手册,强调理论的内在逻辑和实际应用之间的紧密联系。 第一部分:热力学基础的回顾与深化 要掌握相平衡,必须首先对热力学有透彻的理解。本书伊始,即以一种高度聚焦的方式回顾并深化了读者对基础热力学概念的掌握,特别是那些直接与相态和相变相关的概念。 1. 热力学势与化学势的再审视: 重点阐述了吉布斯自由能(G)作为最关键的热力学势在恒温恒压条件下的指导意义。书中详尽地讨论了化学势($mu$)的概念,将其定义为物质在混合物中倾向于迁移的驱动力。通过微观和宏观的视角相结合,读者可以清晰地理解,相平衡的本质是系统中所有组分的化学势达到相等。 2. 偏摩尔量与活度: 针对非理想溶液,本书深入探讨了偏摩尔量(Partial Molar Quantities)的计算方法及其物理意义。活度(activity)的概念被引入,用以修正理想溶液模型下的不足。详细推导了活度系数的意义,并展示了如何通过不同的模型(如Wilson, NRTL, UNIQUAC)来描述溶液的非理想性,这对处理复杂的多组分体系至关重要。 3. 功、热与熵的关联: 虽然这些是基础概念,但本书强调了它们在描述相变过程中能量转换的重要性。特别是在涉及潜热(Latent Heat)的相变过程中,熵变的精确计算被放在突出位置,为理解克拉佩龙方程的推导奠定基础。 第二部分:相平衡的理论构建 这是本书的核心部分,系统地将热力学原理应用于描述不同类型的相平衡系统。 4. 单组分系统的相平衡: 从最简单的纯物质出发,本书详尽地推导了克拉佩龙方程(Clapeyron Equation),并阐述了其在固-液、液-气、固-气三相线上的应用。克劳修斯-克拉佩龙方程(Clausius-Clapeyron Equation)作为其在气液平衡中的重要简化形式,被用来精确计算饱和蒸汽压和沸点。三相点(Triple Point)和临界点(Critical Point)的特性在相图中的体现被详细分析。 5. 多组分系统的相平衡——溶液热力学: 本部分是本书的精髓之一。它涵盖了气-液平衡(VLE)、液-液平衡(LLE)以及固-液平衡(SLE)。 VLE的理论基础: 详细分析了拉乌尔定律(Raoult's Law)在稀溶液和理想溶液中的适用范围。随后,重点讲解了非理想体系中如何利用活度系数模型(如Wilson, NRTL)来校正偏离,从而精确预测闪点、露点和泡点。 LLE的相容性: 探讨了溶液中存在两相的条件,特别是液体的部分互溶性。着重分析了三组分系统中的三角形相图(如Ternary Diagram)的绘制和解读,包括共轭线的意义。 SLE与凝固点下降: 阐述了溶解的溶质对纯溶剂凝固点的影响,这对于合金学和结晶过程至关重要。 6. 扩散相变与化学平衡: 本书并未局限于物理相变,还整合了化学反应在相平衡中的作用。化学反应平衡常数 ($K$) 与热力学量的关系被清晰阐述,展示了如何将化学平衡纳入更宏观的相图分析中。 第三部分:相图的构建与解读 相图是信息的载体,是热力学术语向直观图形转化的桥梁。本书花费大量篇幅指导读者如何“阅读”和“绘制”这些图。 7. 相律的普适性: 吉布斯相律(Gibbs Phase Rule, F = C - P + 2) 被视为指导所有相图分析的根本法则。书中通过大量实例,演示了如何利用相律来确定特定区域或线上自由度(Degrees of Freedom),从而理解相图中“相场”的性质。 8. 二元和三元系统的相图: 二元相图(Binary Diagrams): 详细分析了共晶(Eutectic)、共熔(Eutectoid)、包析(Peritectic)等各种拓扑结构。对于合金系统,书中特别强调了固溶体(Solid Solution)的形成、亚共晶和超共晶冷却路径的分析。 三元相图(Ternary Diagrams): 深入讲解了等温截面、垂直截面以及连线上分析法。特别关注在冶金和陶瓷领域中常见的,如液相烧结过程中相的形成与转化。 9. 压力对相图的影响: 讨论了高压对相平衡的显著影响,例如在地球物理学和高压合成中常见的相变,如冰的不同多晶型物。 第四部分:应用与现代方法 本书的深度体现在它不仅停留在经典理论,还触及了现代工程应用中必须掌握的工具。 10. 范特霍夫/爱伦特定律与溶解度: 系统地分析了温度对固体和气体在液体中溶解度的影响,包括使用范特霍夫方程预测温度依赖性。 11. 反应平衡与化学势的联系: 重新审视化学平衡在多相体系中的地位,如何通过最小化总吉布斯自由能来定位反应的终点,这对于反应工程至关重要。 12. 实验技术与数据拟合: 简要介绍了测定相平衡数据的主要实验技术(如DSC, DTA, TGA, 气相色谱分析等),并介绍了用于处理这些实验数据的热力学数据库和计算方法,如计算化学方法(CALPHAD方法的基础思想),强调了实验数据与理论模型的反馈循环。 总结 《相平衡、相图与相变:其热力学基础》(第二版)以其无与伦比的清晰度和严谨性,成为连接基础物理化学与材料科学、化学工程等应用学科的桥梁。它不仅教授读者“是什么”,更重要的是教会读者“为什么”以及“如何计算”,是任何希望在物质转变领域取得深入研究成果的专业人士不可或缺的工具书。通过系统学习本书内容,读者将能够自信地分析复杂的材料体系,设计高效的提纯或合成过程,并对物质在极端条件下的行为做出准确的预测。