内容简介
《有机化学中的光谱方法(第6版)》是一本由英国剑桥大学D. H. Williams和I. Fleming合著的有机化学光谱方法经典教材。第1版出版于1966年,《有机化学中的光谱方法(第6版)》为第6版。书中讲述了近年来迅猛发展的二维核磁共振(如Tocsy、远‘H-13C COSY)、MALDI、FT-ICR、TOF等新技术。与时俱进,本版较前版在内容上做了较大的改动,有关UV和IR光谱的部分讲述的更加准确;丰富了关于NMR的内容;介绍MS的部分更加讲求结合实际。全书共分为五章,第1章为紫外和可见光谱,论述了电子吸收光谱在测定有机基团中的应用;第2章红外光谱,阐述了傅里叶红外和喇曼光谱的样品制备、光谱选律以及各官能团的特征吸收频率;第3章核磁共振波谱,主要介绍了‘H和13C核磁共振的经验参数、各种二维NMR的具体应用;第4章质谱,介绍了各种粒子谱以及气相和液相色谱与质谱的联用;第5章实例和习题,为读者提供了一些选自研究课题、具有启发性的实例,也为读者巩固所学的知识提供了练习。《有机化学中的光谱方法(第6版)》理论和实践并举,因此也适合有机化学工作者做为手册使用。
读者对象:高校化学系师生、有关研究人员。
内页插图
目录
Preface
Chapter 1: Ultraviolet and visible spectra
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Chromophores
1.3 The absorption laws
1.4 Measurement of the spectrum
1.5 Vibrational fine structure
1.6 Choice of solvent
1.7 Selection rules and intensity
1.8 Solvent effects
1.9 Searching for a chromophore
1.10 Definitions
1.11 Conjugated dienes
1.12 Polyenes
1.13 Polyeneynes and poly-ynes
1.14 Ketones and aldehydes; π-π* transitions
1.15 Ketones and aldehydes; π-π* transitions
1.16 α,β-Unsaturated acids, esters, nitriles and amides
1.17 The benzene ring
1.18 Substituted benzene rings
1.19 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
1.20 Heteroaromatic compounds
1.21 Quinones
1.22 Corroles, chlorins and porphyrins
1.23 Non-conjugated interacting chromophores
1.24 The effect ofsteric hindrance to coplanarity
1.25 Internet
1.26 Bibliography
Chapter 2: Infrared spectra
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Preparation of samples and examination in an infrared spectrometer
2.3 Examination in a Raman spectrometer
2.4 Selection rules
2.5 The infrared spectrum
2.6 The use of the tables of characteristic group frequencies
2.7 Absorption frequencies of single bonds to hydrogen 3600-2000 cm-
2.8 Absorption frequencies of triple and cumulated double bonds2300-1930 cm-
2.9 Absorption frequencies of the double-bond region 1900-1500 em-1
2.10 Groups absorbing in the fingerprint region <1500 cm-1
2.11 Internet
2.12 Bibliography
2.13 Correlation charts
2.14 Tables of data
Chapter 3: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra
3.1 Nuclear spin and resonance
3.2 The measurement of spectra
3.3 The chemical shift
3.4 Factors affecting the chemical shift
3.4.1 Intramolecular factors affecting the chemical shift
3.4.2 Intermolecular factors affecting the chemical shift
3.5 Spin-spin coupling to 13C
3.5.1 13C-2H Coupling
3.5.2 13C-1H Coupling
3.5.3 13C-13C Coupling
3.6 1H-1H Vieinal coupling (3JHH)
3.7 1H-1H Geminal coupling (2JHH)
3.8 1H-1H Long-range coupling (4JHH and 5JHH)
3.9 Deviations from first-order coupling
3.10 The magnitude of 1H-1H coupling constants
3.10.1 Vicinal coupling 3JHH
3.10.2 Geminal coupling (2JHH)
3.10.3 Long-range coupling (4JHH and 5JHH)
3.11 Line broadening and environmental exchange
3.11.1 Efficient relaxation
3.11.2 Environmental exchange
3.12 Improving the NMR spectrum
3.12.1 The effect of changing the magnetic field
3.12.2 Shift reagents
3.12.3 Solvent effects
3.13 Spin decoupling
3.13.1 Simple spin decoupling
3.13.2 Difference decoupling
3.14 The nuclear Overhanser effect
3.14.1 Origins
3.14.2 NOE Difference spectra
3.15 Assignment ofCH3, CH2, CH and quaternary carbons in 13C NMR
3.16 Identifying spin systems——1D-TOCSY
3.17 The separation of chemical shift and coupling onto different axes
3.18 Two-dimensional NMR
3.19 COSY spectra
3.20 NOESY spectra
3.21 2D-TOCSY spectra
3.22 1H-13C COSY spectra
3.22.1 Heteronuclear Multiple Quantum Coherence (HMQC) spectra
3.22.2 Heteronuclear Multiple Bond Connectivity (HMBC) spectra
3.23 Measuring 13C-IH coupling constants (HSQC-HECADE spectra)
3.24 Identifying 13C-13C connections (INADEQUATE spectra)
3.25 Three- and four-dimensional NMR
3.26 Hints for spectroscopic interpretation and structure determination
3.26.1 Carbon spectra
3.26.2 Proton spectra
3.26.3 Hetero-correlations
3.27 Internet
3.28 Bibliography
3.29 Tables of data
Chapter4: Mass spectra
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ion production from readily volatile molecules
4.2.1 Electron impact (EI)
4.2.2 Chemical Ionisation (CI)
4.3 Ion production from poorly volatile molecules
4.3.1 Fast ion bombardment (FIB or LSIMS)
4.3.2 Laser desorption (LD) and matrix-assisted laser desorption (MALDI)
4.3.3 Electrospray ionisation (ESI)
4.4 Ion analysis
4.4.1 Magnetic analysers
4.4.2 Combined magnetic and electrostatic analysers——high-resolution mass spectra (HRMS)
4.4.3 Ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) analysers
4.4.4 Time-of-flight (TOF) analysers
4.4.5 Quadrupole analysers
4.4.6 Ion-trap analysers
4.5 Structural information from mass spectra
4.5.1 Isotopic abundances
4.5.2 EI spectra
4.5.3 CI spectra
4.5.4 FIB (LSMIS) spectra
4.5.5 MALDI spectra
4.5.6 ESI spectra
4.5.7 ESI-FT-ICR and ESI-FT-Orbitrap spectra
4.6 Separation coupled to mass spectrometry
4.6.1 GC/MS and LC/MS
4.6.2 MS/MS
4.7 MS data systems
4.8 Specific ion monitoring and quantitative MS (SIM and MIM)
4.9 Interprcting the spectrum of an unknown
4.10 Internet
4.11 Bibliography
4.12 Tables of data
Chapter 5: Practice in structure determination
5.1 General approach
5.2 Simple worked examples using 13C NMR alone
5.3 Simple worked examples using 1H N-MR alone
5.4 Simple worked examples using the combined application of all fourspectroscopic ethods
5.5 Simple problems using 13C NMR or joint application of IR and 13C NMR
5.6 Simple problems using 1H NMR
5.7 Problems using a combination of spectroscopic methods
5.8 Answers to problems 1-33
Index
精彩书摘
The energy absorbed by the matrix is transferred indirectly to the sample, which reduces any sample decomposition. The matrix is chosen to have solubility properties similar to those of the sample, in order that the sample molecules are properly dispersed. Higher molecular weight oligomeric clumps are produced as 2M+, 3M+, and so on, but these are usually minor components of the spectrum if a well-matched matrix is chosen.
4.3.3 Electrospray ionisation (ESl) An electrospray is the term applied to the small flow of liquid (generally 1-10 lxl/min) from a capillary needle when a potential difference typically of 3-6 kV is applied between the end of the capillary and a cylindrical electrode located 0.3-2 cm away (Fig. 4.4). The liquid leaves the capillary as a fine mist at or near atmospheric pressure, and consists of highly charged liquid droplets. The charge on these droplets may be selected as positive or negative according to the sign of the voltage applied to the capillary. ESI is especially useful since it can be used to analyse directly the effluent from an HPLC column.
The use of a sheath gas or nebulising gas promotes efficient spraying of the solution of the sample from the capillary. Sample molecules dissolved in the spray are released from the droplets by evaporation of the solvent. This evaporation is accomplished by passing a drying gas across the spray before it enters a capillary. As the droplets are multiply charged, and reduced in size by evaporation, the rate of desolvation is increased because of repulsive Coulombic forces. These forces eventually overcome the cohesive forces of the droplet, and an MH~ (or M - H+) molecular ion free of solvent is finally produced. The charged particles are carried, by an appropriate electric field, through a capillary and into an ion analyser.
前言/序言
This book is the sixth edition of a well-established introductory guide to the interpretation of the ultraviolet, infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectra of organic compounds. It is a textbook suitable for a first course in the application of these techniques to structure determination, and as a handbook for organic chemists to keep on their desks throughout their career. These four spectroscopic methods have been used routinely for several decades to determine the structure of organic compounds, both those made by synthesis and those isolated from natural sources. Every organic chemist needs to be skilled in how to apply them, and to know which method works for which problem. In outline, the ultraviolet spectrum identifies conjugated systems, the infrared spectrum identifies functional groups, the nuclear magnetic resonance spectra identify how the atoms are connected, and the mass spectrum gives the molecular formula. One or more of these techniques nowadays is very frequently enough to identify the complete chemical structure of an unknown compound, or to confirm the structure of a known compound. If they are not enough on their own, there are other methods that the organic chemist can turn to: X-ray diffraction, microwave absorption, the Raman spectrum, electron spin resonance and circular dichroism, among others. Powerful though they are, these techniques are all more specialised, and less part of the everyday practice of most organic chemists,
We have kept discussion of the theoretical background to a minimum, since application of the spectroscopic methods is possible without a detailed command of the theory behind them. We have described instead how the techniques work, and how to read each of the four kinds of spectra, including each of the most important 2D N-MR spectra. We have included many tables of data at the ends of Chapters 2, 3 and 4, all of which are needed in the day-to-day interpretation of spectra. Finally in Chapter 5, we work through 11 examples of the way in which the four spectroscopic methods can be brought together to solve fairly simple structural problems, and there are 33 problem sets for you to work through for practice.
In preparing a sixth edition, we have almost completely rewritten the book, to reflect our experience teaching the subject, and to respond to changes that have taken place, both of emphasis and of fact, since the fifth edition was published. The chapters on UV and IR spectra are more concise, the chapter on NMR is expanded, and the chapter on MS made more specific to the everyday, rather than to the more specialised, applications of this technique. The appearance of IR absorptions, formerly gathered at the end of the chapter, are now illustrated at the relevant points in the text. Conversely, we have moved the tables of IR data to the end of the chapter, where they are more convenient for reference, and match the arrangement we have always used for the NMR and MS chapters. Most significantly, we have replaced all of the 60 MHz spectra used hitherto to explain the fundamentals of NMR spectroscopy with new and carefully chosen examples at 400 MHz or more. We have also chosen several new compounds with which to illustrate better the common 2D NMR techniques.
现代化学研究的基石:解析化学物质结构与性能的综合工具集 本书旨在全面梳理和深入剖析现代化学研究中不可或缺的几大关键技术领域,这些技术是理解物质组成、结构、动态行为以及其宏观性能的基石。我们聚焦于那些能够提供高分辨率、高灵敏度信息的先进分析手段,它们共同构成了化学家探究分子世界的“眼睛”和“探针”。 第一部分:电磁辐射与物质相互作用的基础理论 在深入探讨具体技术之前,本书首先构建了坚实的理论框架,阐述了电磁辐射(EMR)如何与物质发生相互作用,这是所有光谱学方法的核心原理。 1.1 电磁波谱与量子力学基础 我们详细回顾了电磁波谱的各个区域(从无线电波到伽马射线),并解释了每种波段的能量如何对应于分子内部特定的能级跃迁。这包括电子能级(紫外-可见光区)、振动能级(红外区)、转动能级(微波区)以及核自旋能级(射频区)。引入了量子力学中的能级概念、薛定谔方程的简化应用,以及偶极矩、选择定则(Selection Rules)等决定光谱信号强弱的关键因素。 1.2 信号的产生、传播与检测 本部分深入讨论了光与物质相互作用的三种基本模式:吸收(Absorption)、发射(Emission)与散射(Scattering)。我们用严谨的数学模型描述了吸收强度与样品浓度、路径长度之间的关系,即朗伯-比尔定律(Beer-Lambert Law)的适用范围和局限性。同时,详细分析了仪器设计中至关重要的光路系统、光源的选择(如黑体辐射源、氘灯、钨灯)、单色器的原理(棱镜与衍射光栅)以及高灵敏度探测器的性能参数(如量子效率、噪声水平)。 第二部分:核磁共振波谱学(NMR Spectroscopy)的深度解析 核磁共振(NMR)是确定分子骨架结构和三维空间构象的最强大技术之一。本书将NMR的介绍分为从基础到前沿的三个层次。 2.1 基础原理与单维谱图的解读 详细解释了核自旋、拉莫尔频率、磁场梯度对化学位移的影响。重点讲解了化学位移 ($delta$)、自旋-自旋耦合(J-耦合)及其解析规则(如n+1规则),这是解读$^{1}$H和$^{13}$C谱图的基石。我们提供了大量实例,演示如何通过积分面积、峰形(多重峰)和耦合常数来推断相邻官能团的连接方式和化学环境。 2.2 进阶二维NMR技术 现代结构解析越来越依赖于二维谱图。本书详尽阐述了以下关键二维技术及其应用: COSY (Correlation Spectroscopy): 用于识别通过键连接的质子对。 TOCSY (Total Correlation Spectroscopy): 用于识别同一自旋系统的所有质子。 HSQC (Heteronuclear Single Quantum Coherence) 与 HMBC (Heteronuclear Multiple Bond Correlation): 用于建立碳骨架与连接质子之间的直接(1J)和间接(2J, 3J)关联,是确定复杂分子连接性的黄金标准。 2.3 固体NMR与动态NMR 针对非液体样品(如聚合物、晶体或生物大分子复合物),我们介绍了魔角堆积(MAS)技术如何消除偶极耦合和化学位移各向异性,从而获得类溶液态的高分辨率谱图。动态NMR则用于研究分子内部的快速运动、构象变化和化学交换过程。 第三部分:分子振动与转动光谱(IR与拉曼) 红外(IR)和拉曼光谱是研究分子中化学键振动模式和官能团的有效工具,它们提供了关于分子几何形状和键强度的重要信息。 3.1 红外吸收光谱(IR) 详细解释了偶极矩变化如何导致红外吸收,并系统分类了各类官能团的特征吸收峰(如O-H, C=O, C≡N等)及其在不同化学环境下的位移规律。我们探讨了傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)相对于传统色散仪的优势,特别是其高信噪比和快速扫描能力。 3.2 拉曼散射光谱(Raman Spectroscopy) 与IR互补,拉曼光谱依赖于分子极化率的变化。本书强调了拉曼在水溶液、无机物和高对称性分子分析中的独特优势。 3.3 表面增强拉曼散射(SERS) 作为一个重要的前沿技术,我们介绍了SERS现象,即利用特定金属纳米结构增强分子信号的机制,这在痕量分析和界面化学研究中具有巨大潜力。 第四部分:电子能级跃迁光谱(UV-Vis)与荧光分析 紫外-可见(UV-Vis)光谱直接反映了分子中电子的激发和弛豫过程,是定量分析和研究电子结构变化的基础技术。 4.1 吸收理论与生色团分析 我们深入探讨了$pi
ightarrow pi^$, $n
ightarrow pi^$, $d
ightarrow d$ 等电子跃迁的能量和波长($lambda_{max}$)。重点分析了共轭效应、溶剂效应和酸碱性如何显著影响吸收峰的位置和强度(即浴式移动bathochromic shift与蓝移hypsochromic shift)。 4.2 荧光光谱与光物理过程 荧光(Fluorescence)和磷光(Phosphorescence)是发射光谱的重要组成部分。本书阐述了Jablonski图,用以描述光激发后分子经历的辐射和非辐射弛豫过程(如斯托克斯位移Stokes Shift、系间窜越Intersystem Crossing)。动态荧光测量(如激发态寿命)是探究分子环境敏感性的有力工具。 第五部分:质谱法(Mass Spectrometry)在结构确证中的应用 虽然质谱(MS)不完全是传统的“光谱”技术,但它通过电磁场分离离子并提供分子量和碎片信息,是结构解析流程中不可或缺的一环。 5.1 离子化技术与分子量测定 详细介绍了软电离技术(如ESI, MALDI)和硬电离技术(如EI)。重点讲解了如何通过精确的分子离子峰($[ ext{M}]^+$或$[ ext{M}+ ext{H}]^+$)确定化合物的分子式。 5.2 碎片模式与结构推断 分析了各种常见官能团在电子轰击下(EI-MS)的特征裂解路径(如$alpha$-裂解、环裂解、重排反应)。通过分析特征碎片离子对,读者将能够系统地重构未知化合物的分子骨架。 5.3 高分辨质谱(HRMS)与联用技术 讨论了TOF和Orbitrap等高分辨率技术如何通过精确质量数来区分具有相同整数质量的同分异构体。此外,本书强调了色谱-质谱联用技术(GC-MS, LC-MS)在复杂混合物分离和鉴定中的核心地位。 通过对这些核心分析方法的全面覆盖和深入探讨,本书旨在为化学、材料科学、生物化学及相关领域的科研人员和高级学生提供一套严谨、实用且与时俱进的分子结构解析工具箱。